Kindle Measurements

For 8th, 9th, 10th class level (ICSE, CBSE) what must be learnt for the following:?

(1) Osmoregulation in humans
(2) Respiration in fish, frog, cockroach
(3) Scalars & Vectors
(4) Heat- expansion of liquids & solids
(5) Specific heat
(6) Temperature & its measurement
(7) Wave motion- frequency, wavelength, velocity
(8) Petroleum products
(9) Energy- types of fuels, kindling temperature, characteristics of fuels, calorific value

1) Osmoregulation is the active regulation of the osmotic pressure of an organism’s fluids to maintain the homeostasis of the organism’s water content; that is it keeps the organism’s fluids from becoming too diluted or too concentrated.
Kidneys play a very large role in human osmoregulation, regulating the amount of water in urine waste. With the help of hormones such as antidiuretic hormone, aldosterone, and angiotensin II, the human body can increase the permeability of the collecting ducts in the kidney to reabsorb water and prevent it from being excreted.
Achieving osmoregulation in vertebrates
Four processes occur:
filtration – fluid portion of blood (plasma) is filtered from a nephron (functional unit of vertebrate kidney) structure known as the glomerulus into Bowman’s capsule or glomerular capsule (in the kidney’s cortex) and flows down the proximal convoluted tubule to a “u-turn” called the Loop of Henle (loop of the nephron) in the medulla portion of the kidney.
reabsorption – most of the viscous glomerular filtrate is returned to blood vessels that surround the convoluted tubules.
secretion – the remaining fluid becomes urine, which travels down collecting ducts to the medullary region of the kidney.
excretion – the urine (in mammals) is stored in the urinary bladder and exits via the urethra; in other vertebrates, the urine mixes with other wastes in the cloaca before leaving the body; ( frogs also have a urinary bladder).
2) Aquatic respiration is the process whereby an aquatic animal obtains oxygen from water.
Earth’s natural bodies of water have a low oxygen concentration—much lower than the level of oxygen in air at the Earth’s surface. Smaller organisms can obtain sufficient oxygen through the skin (e.g. flatworms), but larger organisms require special structures to collect enough oxygen to sustain life. This oxygen comes from molecules of oxygen gas (O2) dissolved in the water. The oxygen atom present in the water molecule (H2O) is not suitable for respiration.
Fish have developed gills for respiration which have:
large surface area which is needed for more oxygen to get in.
high blood flow
small/short diffusion distances
contain 4 gill arches (Bony fishes), two gill arches (Cartilaginous fish) or 7 gill baskets (Lampreys) on each side of the fish’s head
each gill arch has 2 rows (hemibranchs) of gill filaments
each gill filament has many lamellae
In fish, the long bony cover for the gill (the operculum) can be used for pushing water. Some fish pump water using the operculum. Without an operculum, other methods, such as ventilation, are required. Some species of sharks use this system. When they swim, water flows into the mouth and across the gills. Because these sharks rely on this technique, they must keep swimming in order to respire.
Bony fish use a type of countercurrent flow to maximize the intake of oxygen that diffuse through the gill. Countercurrent flow occurs when deoxygenated blood moves through the gill in one direction while oxygenated water moves through the gill in the opposite direction. This mechanism maintains the concentration gradient thus increasing the efficiency of the respiration process as well. Cartilaginous fish do not have a countercurrent flow system as they lack bones which are needed to have the opened out gill that bony fish have.
The skin of a frog is permeable to oxygen and carbon dioxide, as well as to water. There are a number of blood vessels near the surface of the skin. When a frog is underwater, oxygen is transmitted through the skin directly into the bloodstream. On land, adult frogs use their lungs to breathe. Their lungs are similar to those of humans, but the chest muscles are not involved in respiration, and there are no ribs or diaphragm to support breathing. Frogs breathe by taking air in through the nostrils (which often have valves which close when the frog is submerged), causing the throat to puff out, then compressing the floor of the mouth, which forces the air into the lungs. In August 2007 an aquatic frog named Barbourula kalimantanensis was discovered in a remote part of Indonesia. The Bornean Flat-headed Frog (B. kalimantanensis) is the first species of frog known to science without lungs.
Frogs are known for their three-chambered heart, which they share with all tetrapods except birds, crocodilians and mammals. In the three-chambered heart, oxygenated blood from the lungs and de-oxygenated blood from the respiring tissues enter by separate atria, and are directed via a spiral valve to the appropriate vessel—aorta for oxygenated blood and pulmonary artery for deoxygenated blood. This special structure is essential to keeping the mixing of the two types of blood to a minimum, which enables frogs to have higher metabolic rates, and to be more active than otherwise.
Some species of frog have remarkable adaptations that allow them to survive in oxygen deficient water. The lake titicaca frog (Telmatobius c

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